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Curious? Confused? Lost and clueless? You may find some relief in the questions-and-answers below. If you can't find your answer here, or if you know of a question that should be answered here, please drop me a note.
Access to Insight is not an organization and is not affiliated with any institution. It is simply one person's website. Although I have studied the Buddha's teachings for many years as a lay follower, I have no academic degrees in either the Pali language or Buddhist Studies. In these pages I have therefore relied on the translations and interpretations of other respected scholars, teachers, and practitioners who have far more experience and wisdom than do I.
The readings assembled here represent just a selection of the Buddha's teachings. These are the ones that, over the years, I've personally found to be helpful in deepening an understanding of Dhamma practice. This collection is not meant to be an exhaustive archive of Theravada Buddhist texts.
I've tried to avoid injecting my own views and opinions into these web pages. Some biases, however, inevitably intrude, owing to the editorial choices I've made and the short introductory essays and blurbs I've written here and there to give some context to the material being presented. I sincerely hope that my biases do not in any way obscure the real meaning of the texts themselves.
Everything available at Access to Insight is offered in full cooperation with the authors, translators, and publishers concerned, with the clear understanding that none of it is to be sold. Please help yourself to whatever you find useful. (For a detailed explanation of the copyright status of materials on the website, please read "Copyright and Related Issues.")
To contact me (John Bullitt):
by e-mail: » metta@world.std.com
on the Web: » http://www.accesstoinsight.org
by post:John Bullitt
Access to Insight
PO Box 153
Lincoln, MA 01773 USA
Today Access to Insight continues to grow: what began in 1993 as a modest collection of two or three suttas and a handful of articles has blossomed into a library of over 700 suttas and several hundred articles and books. With the release of the Handful of Leaves CD-ROM in 1998 and 1999, these texts are now reaching an even wider audience and being further redistributed around the world in print and electronic media.
The emphasis here is on practice. For the most part I've selected books, articles, and sutta translations that I've found helpful to develop a personal understanding of the Buddha's teachings, rather than texts that tend to fuel intellectual debates on abstract philosophical concepts.
Beyond these basic principles, it all comes down to a matter of personal taste. For example, I have found the teachings from the Thai forest traditions invaluable, so they are heavily represented here. Likewise, you won't find any texts from the Abhidhamma here, simply because I haven't found the Abhidhamma -- as fascinating as it certainly is -- to be particularly helpful to meditation practice.
See also: Why don't you have translations of ALL the suttas from the Pali Canon?
There are many other fine translations of important suttas available in print today, and I encourage you to support their continued publication by purchasing copies. Someday, perhaps, these publishers will choose to make those translations available free of charge on websites such as this one. Until that day comes, however, we must learn to make do with what we have.
See also: How do you decide which texts to include on the website? and What's wrong with selling Dhamma books?
Thank you all.
If you prefer, you might consider making a donation to the Metta Forest Monastery (where Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Access to Insight's most prolific contributor, lives), or to the Buddhist Publication Society, which has provided scores of books and articles to this website:
| Metta Forest Monastery PO Box 1409 Valley Center, CA 92082 USA |
Buddhist Publication Society 54, Sangharaja Mawatha PO Box 61 Kandy, Sri Lanka |
Alternatively, you may simply make a donation to the charity of your choice. In the Buddha's words, "Give wherever the mind feels confidence" [SN III.24]
The files on this website are made available to you thanks to the generosity of dozens of authors, translators, publishers, and transcribers, who contributed their efforts with the explicit understanding that their work would only be given away free of charge, as an expression of dana. You may download these files to your computer, print them out, read them, share them with your friends, copy them to your own website, translate them into other languages, and redistribute them electronically -- provided that you do not charge any money for them. They are not in the public domain. You may reformat the files as you please (see below), but you may not change their content without first obtaining permission from the author, translator, or publisher.
Some texts contain additional copyright notices with specific additional rights and restrictions spelled out by the authors and publishers; please read and abide by these notices. If you reprint or republish any of these materials, please acknowledge the original author, translator, or publisher, as appropriate.
If you have particular questions about the copyright status of anything offered here, please let me know.
See also: What's wrong with selling Dhamma books?
See also: What's the relationship between "dana" and "fundraising"?
URL: title, author or translator, document's revision dateYou'll find the URL and revision date at the bottom of each page on the website. Some examples:
http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/modern/thanissaro/refuge/: "Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha," Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 7 May 1999.http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/majjhima/mn007.html: "Vatthupama Sutta (MN 7)," Nyanaponika Thera, trans., 7 May 1999.
Disc title: Version, Date. "Article title," author or translator. Publisher.Some examples:
A Handful of Leaves: version 2.0, 1999. "Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha," Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight.A Handful of Leaves: version 2.0, 1999. "Vatthupama Sutta (MN 7)," Nyanaponika Thera, trans. Buddhist Publication Society/Access to Insight.
I receive a lot of e-mail with basic questions about Buddhism. In the interest of reducing e-mail traffic (yours and mine), I offer here answers to some of the more common ones. These are my own opinions and interpretations, so please read them at your own risk. I hope they're helpful. -- jtb
Some are, some aren't. As far as I know, there is no evidence in the Pali Canon to suggest that the Buddha prohibited his lay followers from eating meat. The first of the five precepts concerns the intentional act of depriving a living being of life, but has nothing to do with consuming the flesh of an animal that is already dead. From the Theravada Buddhist perspective, the choice of whether or not to eat meat is thus purely a matter of personal preference.
Although Theravada monks are indeed forbidden to eat certain kinds of meat,[1] they are not expected to practice vegetarianism, since their food is provided by the generosity of lay supporters,[2] who may or may not themselves be vegetarian.[3] Theravada monks are not required to eat everything that is placed in their alms-bowl, so a monk intent on pursuing vegetarianism may simply ignore the meat in his bowl. In parts of Asia where vegetarianism is unheard of, however, vegetarian monks would soon face a choice: eat meat or starve.
Taking part in killing for food (hunting, fishing, trapping, etc.) is definitely incompatible with the first precept, and should be avoided.
But what if I eat -- or just purchase -- meat: aren't I simply encouraging someone else to do the killing for me? How can this possibly be consistent with the Buddhist principle of non-harming, that cornerstone of Right Resolve? This is tricky. I personally believe it would be wrong to order someone, "Please kill that chicken for me!", since it incites that person to break the first precept.[4] Surely this is unskillful kamma. (Keep this in mind whenever you're tempted to order fresh shellfish at a restaurant.) But purchasing a piece of dead animal meat is another matter. Although my purchase may indeed help keep the butcher in business, I am not asking him to kill on my behalf. Whether he kills another cow tomorrow is his choice, not mine. This is a difficult but important point, one that reveals the fundamental distinction between personal choices (choices aimed at altering my own behavior) and political ones (those aimed at altering others' behavior). Each one of us must discover for ourselves where lies the boundary between the two. It is crucial to remember, however, that the Buddha's teachings are, first and foremost, tools to help us learn to make good personal choices (kamma); they are not prescriptions for political action.
We could not survive long in this world without bringing harm of one sort or another to other creatures. No matter how carefully we trod, countless insects, mites, and other creatures inadvertently perish under our feet with every step. Where, then, do we even begin to draw the line between "acceptable" and "unacceptable" harm? The Buddha's answer was very clear and very practical: the five precepts. He didn't ask his followers to become vegetarian (although many do gradually lose an appetite for meat); he simply asked us to observe the precepts. For many of us, this is challenge enough. This is where we begin.
Notes:1. Theravada monks are forbidden to eat the flesh of humans, elephants, horses, dogs, snakes, lions, tigers, leopards, bears, hyenas, and panthers. A monk is also forbidden to eat raw fish or meat, or any fish or meat that he sees, hears, or suspects was killed specifically for him (see the description of "staple foods" in The Buddhist Monastic Code). A monk who eats any of those kinds of meat commits an offense that he must then confess to his fellow monks. These rules do not imply that a monk must not eat meat -- only that a monk must be careful as to which kinds of meat he does eat. [Go back]
2. See "The Economy of Gifts" by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. [Go back]
3. Monastics within some schools of Mahayana Buddhism do practice vegetarianism. See The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction (fourth edition) by R.H. Robinson & W.L. Johnson (Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1997), pp. 213-14. [Go back]
4. This is in line with the monks' rule about not eating meat that he sees, hears, or suspects was killed specifically for him. See The Buddhist Monastic Code [Go back]
First of all, I wouldn't be a Buddhist if I didn't think enlightenment were possible. In the suttas, the Buddha speaks again and again of the many rewards awaiting those who follow the Path, long before they reach nibbana: the happiness that comes from developing generosity; the happiness that comes from living according to principles of virtue; the happiness that comes from developing loving-kindess (metta); the happiness that comes from practicing meditation and discovering the exquisite bliss of a quiet mind; the happiness that comes from abandoning painful states of mind; and so on. These can be tasted for yourself, to varying degrees, with practice. Once you've personally verified a few of the Buddha's teachings, it becomes easier to accept the possibility that the rest of his teachings are plausible -- including his extraordinary claim that enlightenment is real.
I honestly don't know how to recognize an enlightened person. After all, how can I see past my own delusion and defilements with enough clarity to judge the purity of another person's heart, that most secret corner of the psyche? I don't believe an enlightened person looks, walks, or talks a certain way. The Hollywood stereotype -- a radiant complexion, an ever-present Buddha-smile, wise words (perhaps cloaked in cryptic koan-like phrases and mystical jargon, sprinkled with the occasional impish giggle), unusual clothing (probably imported from India), a charismatic character -- I sincerely doubt that any of this has anything whatsoever to do with enlightenment. So it's probably best not to spend much time speculating on someone else's degree of enlightenment. Your time would be far better spent looking into your own heart, asking yourself, "Am I enlightened? Have I made an end of suffering and stress?" If the answer is negative, then you have more work to do.
When deciding whether to accept someone as your meditation teacher, instead of speculating on his or her degree of enlightenment, it's much more fruitful to ask yourself these questions: "Does this person seem to be truly happy? Does she live in line with the precepts? Does she present the Dhamma in ways that I can understand? Is her interpretation of Dhamma a valid one? Can I learn something of value from her?" It may take a long time of close association with someone before you can begin to answer these questions with any confidence. But if you do find someone possessing this rare constellation of qualities, stay with her: she probably has something of lasting value to teach you.
Finally, one rule of thumb that I've found helpful: someone who goes around claiming to be enlightened probably isn't -- at least not in the sense the Buddha had in mind.
See also: "Recognizing the Dhamma" (Study Guide)
For the past 100 years, the Pali Text Society in England has been the leading publisher of the Tipitaka in both Pali and English. Unfortunately, many of their translations are now badly out of date and not particularly useful. Excellent modern translations of the Digha, Majjhima, and Samyutta Nikayas are, however, available from Wisdom Publications. Look for their titles The Long Discourses of the Buddha (formerly titled Thus Have I Heard), by Maurice Walshe (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1987); The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, by Bhikkhu Ñanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995); and The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, by Bhikkhu Bodhi (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000).
Marriage is an excellent time to renew one's commitment to the Triple Gem and to living in accordance with the five precepts. In Buddhist countries a newlywed couple typically pays a visit to the local monastery shortly after the wedding to make offerings to the monastic community, chant the refuges and precepts in a formal way, receive a little Dhamma instruction, and possibly receive a blessing or two from the monks. If such a visit isn't possible for you, you might put together your own refuges and precepts ceremony (use the formal ceremony as a guide). You might also consider reciting the "Five Subjects for Frequent Recollection," the Maha-Mangala Sutta, or any other passages that inspire you.
For other ideas, browse through the Subject Index under "Lay Buddhist Practice" or A Chanting Guide: Pali Passages with English Translations.
The act of going for refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha[2] marks a major turning point in our spiritual development, the real start of our journey down the Buddhist path.[3] It helps foster a healthy attitude towards Buddhist practice by encouraging the development of right view, and serves as a constant reminder both of the goal of practice and of the means to achieve that goal. It is therefore crucial that we be clear and precise about the meaning of the refuges, lest we end up heading down a road quite different from the one the Buddha had in mind.
In taking refuge in the Sangha, we are asked to set our inner sights on the ideal community of Noble Ones (ariya-sangha) -- those monks, nuns, laywomen, and laymen who, throughout history, have by their own diligent efforts successfully carried out the Buddha's instructions and gained at least a glimpse of the supreme happiness of nibbana. If this is the direction in which we also wish to go, then it is to these individuals that we should turn for refuge:
The Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples who have practiced well...who have practiced straight-forwardly...who have practiced methodically...who have practiced masterfully -- in other words, the four types [of noble disciples] when taken as pairs, the eight when taken as individual types -- they are the Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples: worthy of gifts, worthy of hospitality, worthy of offerings, worthy of respect, the incomparable field of merit for the world.[AN XII.12]
But going for refuge doesn't stop there. We are also asked to turn to the monastic community (bhikkhu-sangha) for refuge, for it is thanks to the unbroken lineage of this 2,600-year-old institution that we are fortunate enough today to be able to hear the teachings. Moreover, the living example of the monastic community serves to remind us of the immense value of generosity, of living a morally upright life, of renunciation -- in short, it reminds us that it is indeed possible to live a life fully in tune with every aspect of the Buddha's teachings. In reality, of course, not every monk or nun necessarily lives up to the Buddha's high standards of conduct. For this reason it is to the institution of the Sangha that we turn to refuge, not to the individual members themselves. This is the Sangha to which lay people have turned since the time of the Buddha:
I go to Master Gotama for refuge, to the Dhamma, and to the Sangha of monks. May Master Gotama remember me as a lay follower who has gone to him for refuge, from this day forward, for life. [DN 2, MN 72, SN LI.15, AN IV.184, etc.]
So it is these exceptional groups of people -- the ariya-sangha and the bhikkhu-sangha -- that define the Third Gem and Refuge; it is to these groups that we are asked to turn for refuge, not to some vaguely-defined community of like-minded Dhamma friends and fellow meditators. In which group would you rather put your trust?
Some writers have proposed alternatives to sangha to describe gatherings and communities of Dhamma companions. Two such proposals are parisa[4] (the "fourfold assembly": monks (bhikkhus), nuns (bhikkhunis), male lay followers (upasakas), and female lay followers (upasikas), regardless of spiritual attainment) and gana (chapter; quorum; gang). Perhaps these are better alternatives to sangha, but I'm left wondering why we must invoke the Pali language at all. Does a meditation group really need a special name? Why not just call it a "meditation group" and leave it at that?
"Sangha" is an important term with a precise meaning. It stands for something truly extraordinary and brilliant that can constantly remind us of the highest and most excellent possibilities the Path has to offer. Let's use it well.
Notes:1. The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction (fourth edition) by R.H. Robinson & W.L. Johnson (Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1997), p. 307. [Go back]
2. Here I follow the convention of capitalizing "Sangha" when referring to the third object of refuge. [Go back to text]
3. See Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997). [Go back]
4. See Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997). [Go back]
Giving of any kind is unquestionably good. The Buddha encourages us to give generously whenever anyone asks for help [Dhp 224]. And even the smallest of gifts, when offered with a generous heart, has tremendous value: "Even if a person throws the rinsings of a bowl or a cup into a village pool or pond, thinking, 'May whatever animals live here feed on this,' that would be a source of merit" [AN III.58]. But the actual rewards of giving depend strongly on the climate in which the giving occurs. The giver and the recipient -- the donor and the organization -- share an equal responsibility in fostering a climate that makes the most of generosity. If both are serious about putting the Buddha's teachings into practice, they would do well to consider the following points:
First, the benefits of giving multiply in accordance with the purity of the giver's motives. A gift we give half-heartedly yields modest rewards for all concerned, whereas a gift given with genuine open-handedness, "not seeking [our] own profit, not with a mind attached [to the reward]," is of far greater value [AN VII.49]. If we give with an expectation of receiving something from the recipient in return -- membership benefits, a certificate of appreciation, a book, a meditation course, etc. -- we shortchange ourselves, and dilute the power of our generosity. Buddhist organizations should therefore be cautious about rewarding gifts with these sorts of perquisites.
Second, the Buddha does not encourage us to ask for gifts. In fact, he says quite the opposite: he encourages us to make do with what little we already have [AN IV.28]. This theme of contentment-with-little echoes throughout the Buddha's teachings. To my mind, a fundraiser's long "wish list" of needed items conveys a sense of dissatisfaction, and thus seems at odds with this message. Donors most enjoy giving when they know that their gift -- no matter how humble it may be -- is truly appreciated by the recipient. If I have only a small gift to give, I wonder if it will be appreciated -- or even noticed -- by an organization with ambitious fundraising goals or a long and expensive list of needs. An organization can promote the Buddha's teachings most effectively, and inspire the greatest confidence among its supporters, by keeping its needs modest and its requests rare.
Third, the purity of the recipient also matters [SN III.24]. When we give to virtuous people -- those who, at the very least, abide by the five precepts -- we not only acknowledge their intention to develop virtue (sila), but we also reinforce our own resolve. Giving to virtuous people is thus a powerful kammic force whose benefits extend far beyond the moment of giving itself. Generosity and virtue are deeply intertwined; when we learn to exercise our generous impulses skillfully, and give where the gift reaps the greatest fruit, we make the most of them both. Whether we are giver or recipient, we stand to benefit most from generosity when we take virtue seriously.
Finally, an appeal to fledgling Buddhist groups and organizations: please be very, very patient, and resist the temptation to make your organization grow. The success of a Buddhist organization should never be measured in conventional commercial terms: number of members, number of downloads, number of courses taught, amount of money raised, etc. Its success can only be measured by how well it embodies the Buddha's teachings. If it does good work that is rooted firmly in the principles of virtue, people who recognize virtue when they see it will inevitably take notice and be inspired to lend a hand with unbounded generosity. Any organization that can do this much passes on to others, in the most direct way possible, the priceless tradition of generosity, which is the heart and soul of Dhamma -- the greatest gift of all [Dhp 354].
See also:
There's nothing inherently wrong with selling Dhamma books. Indeed, commercially distributed Dhamma books are often easier to find in bookstores than their free, privately-printed cousins. But that accessibility comes at a steep price. The instant someone puts a price tag on a Dhamma book, you not only have to pay money for it, but you get less in return: you get a book that is merely about Dhamma, instead of one that is itself an example of Dhamma in action. Which one do you think has greater value?
(Please note: These comments apply equally well to the sale of other Dhamma "goods": meditation classes, Dhamma talks, workshops, retreats, audio tapes, CD-ROMs, etc.)
See also: What's the relationship between 'dana' and 'fundraising'?
The Pali word vipassana -- often translated as "insight" -- has a variety of meanings. First, it refers to the flash of liberating intuitive understanding that marks the culmination of Buddhist meditation practice.[1] In the Pali discourses vipassana also refers to the mind's ability to witness clearly as events unfold in the present moment. In this sense it is a skill that a meditator develops using a broad arsenal of meditative tools and techniques. With practice, this skill can bring the meditator to the threshold of liberating insight.[2] In its third meaning, one that has become especially popular in the West in recent years, "Vipassana" (with a capital "V") refers to a system of meditation -- vipassana bhavana, or "Insight Meditation" -- that is based on an interpretation of the Satipatthana Sutta (MN 10), the Buddha's concise "how-to" guide to the development of mindfulness (sati).[3]
Followers of the popular Vipassana movement generally regard the Satipatthana Sutta as the essence of the Buddha's teachings; some even maintain that the instructions it contains are the only ones necessary for achieving liberating insight. Theravada Buddhism, by contrast, encompasses the entire Pali Canon, which includes thousands of discourses, each of which highlights a different aspect of the Buddha's teachings. In Theravada each discourse supports, depends upon, reflects, and informs all the others; even a discourse as important as the Satipatthana Sutta is seen as but a single thread in the Buddha's complex tapestry of teachings.
Although many students do find all they want in Vipassana, some feel a nagging unease that something fundamental is missing. This common reaction is hardly surprising, since the Satipatthana discourse was delivered to a group of relatively advanced students who were already well-established in the path of Dhamma practice. Happily, all those missing pieces can be found in the Pali Canon. In the Canon we find the Buddha's teachings on generosity and virtue, the twin pillars upon which all spiritual practice is built. His teachings on the recollection of the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha serve to strengthen the development of saddha (faith, confidence), which provides a potent fuel to sustain Dhamma practice long after we return home from that meditation retreat. In the Canon we also find his teachings on the drawbacks of sensuality and the value of renunciation; on developing all the factors in the Eightfold Path, including those that are seldom explored during organized Vipassana retreats: right speech, right livelihood, right effort, and right concentration (meaning jhana). And there is much, much more.
In Theravada, the path to liberating insight does not boil down to a single meditation technique, to being continuously mindful. The path to Awakening is full of unexpected twists, turns, forks in the road, and other surprises. Fortunately for us, the Buddha left behind a varied assortment of useful tools and skills to help us safely make the journey.
See also: "What is Theravada Buddhism?"
Notes:1. Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines by Nyanatiloka (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1988). [Go back]
2. See "One Tool Among Many: The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice" (Thanissaro Bhikkhu) [Go back]
3. The modern Vipassana movement grew out of the tradition of Satipatthana Vipassana, a meditation system based on the Satipatthana Sutta and developed by Burmese monks in the early 20th century. By the 1950's the Burmese teachers Sayagyi U Ba Khin (a layman; 1899-1971) and Mahasi Sayadaw (a monk; 1904-1982) had independently codified and institutionalized these teachings, making them widely accessible across South Asia and, eventually, the West. The Satipatthana Vipassana approach to meditation continues to enjoy widespread popularity among laypeople in the West. See Satipatthana Vipassana: Insight Through Mindfulness by Mahasi Sayadaw (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1990) and The Essentials of Buddha Dhamma in Meditative Practice by U Ba Khin (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1981). [Go back]
For details about how I maintain the website on the unix web server, see my Technical Notes. For some notes about my style choices for the website, see "The Elements of ATI Style".
For some more refreshing opinions: